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Nutshell Biography:
Gracia Mendes lived during the turbulent times after the expulsion from
Spain. Her family remained in Portugal after the 1497 forced conversions,
and lived as secret Jews. Her name to the outside world is Beatrice de
Luna. She is married to Francisco Mendes, one of two brothers who controls
a growing trading company. The House of Mendes probably began as a company
trading precious objects, but with the boom in spice trade following the
Portuguese explorations leading to the sea route to India, they become
important spice traders. When her husband dies she takes over his role
in running the business with his brother Diogo, and when Diogo later dies
she takes charge of the business. She later brings her nephew, who is
to eventually become the illustrious Joseph Nasi, Duke of Naxos, to help
her.
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As
head of this large international enterprise she has two secret goals.
One is to reach a land where she can be free of the threat of the
Inquisition and practice her Judaism openly. The other is to help
as many of her fellow crypto-Jews reach freedom. For a former Jew,
attempting to leave Christian lands is prima facie evidence of heresy.
She assists many others in doing so, but it is easier for poor person
to slip away from Christian lands than for someone as important as
Gracia. Not only are her movements more visible. But her wealth creates
two special problems. She wants to retain control of her company,
and knows that assets that she leaves behind will be confiscated.
Also, she is caught in the classical double-bind created by the desire
of the Christian kings to retain the advantages of housing the head,
and hence the administrative home, of such a large business. |
Through a series of careful
moves she takes her business and family to Antwerp, Venice, Ferrara (where
she declares her Judaism), and finally Constantinople. In the process she
is taken by the inquisition, accused of heresy by her own sister (Diogo’s
widow), and provokes international incidents when, while she is still in
Italy, the Sultan of Turkey places her under his protection.
In Constantinople she uses her considerable wealth to help individuals and
communities, to support academies of learning as far away as in newly revived
Jewish settlements in Palestine, and sponsored printing presses, which were
invaluable in keeping Jewish texts alive.
After a particularly heinous torture and burning of Jews in the Italian
city of Ancona, she uses her wealth and influence to attempt a worldwide
boycott by all Jewish merchants of the port of that city. Unfortunately,
both from fear of reprisals and conflicting Rabbinic opinions this effort
was not successful, even though Gracia had the support of such figures as
the great scholar Joseph Caro.
Gracia was universally venerated for her strength and courage and good works.
Rabbi Moses di Trani, after Proverbs 31:29, said of her "many daughters
have done virtuously, but Hanna hath excelled them all."
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Gracia
Mendes Timeline
A paper submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements
for courses on Jewish Education and Sephardic History International
Institute for Secular Humanistic Judaism
by Dennis P. Geller
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1492 The young Semah
and Meir Benveniste are brought to Portugal by their father. Their Christian
names are Francisco and Diogo Mendes.
1497 Forced conversions in Portugal
1510(?) Gracia is born in Portugal. Her outside name was Beatrice de Luna.
In the family she was Gracia (Hannah) Nasi. Her brother — Dr. Miguez —
was the royal physician.
1512 Diogo Mendes opens a branch of the House of Mendes in Antwerp. By
1525 the brothers control the largest share of the pepper and spice trade,
buying directly from the King of Portugal (the only bulk importer). The
capital at his disposal was 300,000 — 400,000 florins He made loans to
the Kings of Portugal and England.
Birth of Gracia’s nephew Joao Miguez (Joseph Nasi)
1528. Gracia is married to Francisco Mendes. Brother of Diogo. They had
migrated with their father in 1492 as one of 600 privileged families.
Their family names were Semah and Meir Benveniste. Starting as dealers
in precious stones, they became wealthy and important traders, participating
in the hugely profitable spice trade
1531 Diogo is arrested for heresy (being a secret "Judaizer"). Using letters
of safe conduct from the (Holy Roman) Emperor he is released the same
day.
1532. Diogo is arrested on the word of a child who, with his mother and
3 siblings, Diogo has previously helped escape to Salonica. Diogo is moved
to Brussels. Antwerp puts up obstacles, demands the right to try him.
The King of Portugal, who will lose 200,000 ducats if Diogo cannot complete
business deals, instructs his representatives to intervene. Mary of Hungary
and Henry VIII also support Diogo.
September. Diogo is released under bail of 50,000 ducats and a large cash
payment. Charges are dropped.
The Emperor prohibits New Christians from travelling through Antwerp on
their way to Turkey. The House of Mendes is able to help most travelers
anyway.
1535-36 The New Christian community attempts to pay the Pope 30,000 ducats
to prohibit the Inquisition from Antwerp. The deal is not completed due
to mutual suspicion.
1536. Francisco dies, Gracia is left with an infant daughter Reyna (publicly
known as Brianda). The administration of Francisco’s fortune is divided
between Gracia, who is to act in the name of her daughter, and Diogo
Papal brief on May 23 opens the Inquisition in Portugal, on the Spanish
model. New Christians cannot easily emigrate to non-Christian countries,
but can go to Northern Europe. Gracia moves to Antwerp with her daughter
Brianda, her unmarried sister Brianda (namesake of Gracia’s daughter),.
and her nephews Joao Miguez (a.k.a. Joseph Nasi, later Duke of Naxos)
and his younger brother. They stop for a while in England. In Antwerp,
Brianda marries Diogo.
1537 New Christians guaranteed the ability to settle in Antwerp with full
rights, with immunity from prosecution for crimes committed elsewhere.
1539. Inquisition begins in Lisbon. Mass emigration to Antwerp and (Spanish)
Italy.
1540 Massive arrests in Italy of New Christians on their way to Ancona
or Salonica. Suspicions that their finds were provided by Diogo. Three
leading merchants of Antwerp hold a meeting send 2,000 ducats to Milan
to provide for the prisoners and bribe the commissioners. An employee
of the firm who is at this meeting is later arrested in Italy and informs
on the secret meeting and colony. All suspect New Christians in England
are arrested, although later released. Gracia gets Diogo to agree to leave
Flanders within a year.
1542-43 Diogo dies. Gracia is named administrator of Diogo’s half of the
business on behalf of his widow and infant daughter. Gracia must fight
charges of heresy against Diogo (else his property will be confiscated).
The charges are withdrawn when she lends the emperor 100,000 ducats interest
free.
1542(?)-4 Gracia is pressured by the Emperor to marry her daughter to
a much older (Old Christian) nobleman, Don Francisco d’Aragon. Aragon
promises the Emperor a 200,000 loan from his wife’s money if the marriage
takes place. She is personally summoned by Mary, ex-Queen of Hungary,
Regent of the Netherlands, and sister of the Emperor who proposes the
match to her.
1544 Gracia leaves Antwerp with her sister and the two young girls , under
pretext of a vacation in Aachem (Aix-la-Chapelle) but instead settles
in Venice. She has previously arranged with the government for a safe-conduct.
Much of the fortune is left in Antwerp with Joao Miguez.
1545 The two widows are accused of apostasy and ordered to appear before
the Council of Brabrant. When they fail to appear, an embargo is placed
on the 40 treasure chests they had left in Antwerp. Miguez enters into
delaying negotiations with the Emperor. Eventually the Emperor accepts
a payment of 30,000 crowns in settlement of all claims. However, the Queen
argues for total confiscation. During the protracted negotiations Miguez
manages to sell some of the firm’s Antwerp property and finally flees
to Venice. Meanwhile, Gracia has arranged for the Venetian government
to sequester venetian property of German merchants who had custody of
her treasure in Antwerp, and was able to recover some of the latter in
return for lifting of the embargo. Despite serious losses the firm is
still wealthy, and out of Spanish control at last.
1546-1549 Brianda, possibly jealous of Gracia’s control of the company
and its fortunes, denounces her as a Judaizer, and announced that the
plan was to eventually leave Venice for Turkey. The Venetian government
embargoes the family property, placed Gracia under arrest, and places
the girls in a nunnery. Brianda employs an anti-Jewish French agent to
lodge a similar denunciation in France, but is in turn denounced by the
agent, so that the property she had hoped to receive is also placed under
embargo.
Joseph Hamon, a Sephardic Jew who was physician to the Turkish Sultan
Suleiman the Magnificent, brings the story to the Sultan who, is hoping
for the transfer of the Mendes business empire to Turkey. The Sultan sends
an envoy to Venice requesting that Gracia be allowed to travel immediately
to Constantinople.
1547 Joseph flees Amsterdam and settles in France. He enters the circle
of Kind Francis I.
1549 Gracie has arranged for her release and has been reunited with her
daughter. She is given one month to swear to be a true Christian, or to
never return to Venice. She is unwilling to move to Constantinople at
this time, without arranging for the transfer of the business
1550 — February They move to Ferrara, where Jews were welcomed and immune
from attack on religious grounds, at invitation of the Duke. Within a
few months Brianda joins her, with her daughter. They begin to live openly
as Jews.
They return to Venice to visit with the Sultan’s envoy, under safe-conduct.
July 8. The Venetian Senate issues an expulsion order against the New
Christians. (By the end of the century the policy is reversed and Venice
becomes a haven for the Marranos.)
1551 An outbreak of plague. The Jews are believed to have brought it on
their journeys and are required to leave the city. Gracia organized their
movements, provided supplies and money. Eventually the scare dies down
and the Jews return.
1552 The first Spanish version of the traditional prayer book is published
in Ferrara. This is followed by a translation of the Bible. The edition
published for Christians is dedicated to the Duke; the one for Jews is
dedicated to "one so noble and magnificent that it would adorn her nobility"
— "the Very Magnificent Lady Doña Gracia Naci[sic]".
This in turn is followed by "Concolation for the Tribulations of Israel"
a prose poem in Portuguese recounting the whole of Jewish history, written
to assist the crypto-Jews of Portugal and prevent them from being overwhelmed
by what they had undergone. This is also dedicated to Gracia: "who has
seen revived the intrinsic piety of Miriam, offering her life to save
her brethren? The great prudence of Deborah, in governing her people?
That infinite virtue and great sanctity of Esther, in helping those who
are persecuted? The much praised strength of the most chaste and magnanimous
widow, Judith, in delivering those hemmed in by travail? [It is]the fortunate
Jewess Nasci. She it is who at the beginning of their journey greatly
helps your necessitous sons… In such wise, with her golden arm and heavenly
grasp, she raised moth of those of this people from the depths of this
and other infinite travail in which they were kept enthralled in Europe…
she brings them to safe lands and does not cease to guide them, and gathers
them to the obedience and precepts of their god of old."
The Inquisition spreads further in Europe.
Pope Julius III guarantees that Portuguese New Christians who settle in
Ancona will be free from prosecutions by ecclesiastical courts on the
basis of practice of Judaism. Upwards of 100 families will migrate to
Ancona, live openly as Jews, and open a synagogue.
1553 Julius III extends his concessions to all Jews and Portuguese in
Ancona. (In return for payment of 1000 ducats per year.)
Gracia and her family arrive in Constantinople.
Joseph Nasi arrives in Constantinople and declares himself a Jew (and
is circumcised); marries Reyna.
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1555 The fanatical anti-Jewish Cardinal Giovanni Caraffa becomes Pope
Paul IV. In Italy he institutes the Ghetto system, excludes Jews from
honorable walks of life, enforces wearing of Jewish badge of Spain.
His representative in Ancona arrests the whole of the Portuguese New
Christian community and jails them, in violation of guarantees they
had received from the city and from previous Popes. This representative
takes bribes and allows approximately 50 to go free. He flees to Venice
with more than 300,000 ducats of bribes and confiscated money. His
successor orders the remaining prisoners shackled together and tortured
in public.
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Gracia's representatives
in Ferrara are denounced to the Inquisition, although no evidence is produced.
Her daughter (now called Gracia la chica or Gracia the Younger) and her
daughter’s husband (Samuel. Joseph’s brother) are living in Ferrara. Starting
April 13, twenty five prisoners who had refused to abjure Judaism were
strangled and burned.
Boycott of Ancona organized by Gracia Mendes.
1558 Gracia la chica and Samuel are allowed to leave Ferrara.
1561 Tiberias is granted to Joseph. He is to be instrumental in its rebuilding.
1562 Joseph negotiates a peace treaty between Poland and Turkey.
1566 Suleiman the Magnificent dies. With Joseph’s help, his son Selim
becomes Sultan. Joseph is appointed Dike of Naxos.
1569 Joseph supports the revolt of the Netherlands from Spain ( and offers
support of the Ottoman empire).
Gracia Mendes dies
Samuel dies
1579 Joseph dies
1596 The first public Jewish service is held in Amsterdam
1599 Reyna dies.
More at : http://www.kahalbraira.org/mendes/GraciaMendes.html
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